---
title: "Understanding Fit Indices in OpenMx and umx: Browne, Satorra-Bentler, and Savalei"
author: "Timothy C. Bates"
date: "`r Sys.Date()`"
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## Executive Summary

Users comparing fit statistics across versions of `OpenMx`, `umx`, and `lavaan` may notice differences in reported $\chi^2$, CFI, TLI, and RMSEA values for Weighted Least Squares (WLS / DWLS) models. 

These differences do not reflect arbitrary code changes. They stem from distinct statistical formulations designed for different estimation contexts:
1. **Raw WLS Discrepancy:** The unadjusted quadratic form fit function.
2. **Browne (1984) Residual $\chi^2$:** Discrepancy evaluated directly on the asymptotic covariance of sample moments.
3. **Satorra–Bentler (1994, 2010) Scaled $\chi^2$:** Mean-and-variance scaling applied to WLS models for omnibus hypothesis testing.
4. **Savalei (2021) CatML Corrections:** Evaluating WLS parameter estimates inside a Maximum Likelihood correlation scaffold to obtain valid, non-inflated CFI, TLI, and RMSEA fit indices for ordinal data.

This guide explains the mathematical rationale, history, exact implementation, comparative logic between `umx` and `lavaan`, and practical manuscript reporting guidance.

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## 1. The Core Challenge: Ordinal Data & WLS Estimation

Under Maximum Likelihood (ML), variables are assumed continuous and multivariate normal. When data are ordinal (binary or Likert), structural equation models estimate **polychoric correlations** and **thresholds** for underlying continuous latent responses $x^*$.

In WLS/DWLS estimation:
* The sample polychoric correlation matrix $R$ has exact $1.0$s on the diagonal.
* Binary indicators fix their residual variance to $1.0$. Consequently, the model-implied total variance of $x^*$ is $\text{Var}(x^*) = 1.0 + \text{explained variance} > 1.0$.

This metric difference between observed correlation $R$ ($\text{diag}=1$) and model-implied response covariance $\hat{\Sigma}$ ($\text{diag} > 1$) creates distinct challenges for fit evaluation.

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## 2. Omnibus Test Statistics: Browne vs. Satorra–Bentler

### Raw WLS Objective ($F_{\text{WLS}}$)
The raw WLS discrepancy is given by:
$$F_{\text{WLS}} = (s - \hat{\sigma})^T W (s - \hat{\sigma})$$
where $s$ is the vector of sample moments (polychoric correlations and thresholds), $\hat{\sigma}$ is the model-implied vector, and $W$ is the weight matrix (full or diagonal).

### Browne (1984) Residual $\chi^2$
OpenMx exposes an internal slot `output$chi` based on Browne's WLS residual weighted least squares:
$$\chi^2_{\text{Browne}} = e^T \hat{V}^{-1} e$$
This statistic evaluates discrepancy directly in the space of the asymptotic covariance matrix $\hat{V}$.

### Satorra–Bentler (1994, 2010) Scaled $\chi^2$
The standard Satorra–Bentler scaled statistic adjusts the raw WLS objective by a scaling factor $c$:
$$\chi^2_{\text{SB}} = \frac{F_{\text{WLS}}}{c}$$
where $c = \text{tr}(U \Gamma) / r$, with $U$ representing the residual weight matrix, $\Gamma$ the asymptotic covariance of sample moments, and $r$ the model degrees of freedom.

`umxSummary()` reports $\chi^2_{\text{SB}}$ as the omnibus test statistic for overall model fit when WLS Jacobians are available.

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## 3. Why Standard WLS $\chi^2$ Fails for CFI / TLI / RMSEA (Savalei, 2021)

For decades, software packages calculated CFI, TLI, and RMSEA directly from WLS $\chi^2_{\text{SB}}$. However, Victoria Savalei (2021) demonstrated that WLS $\chi^2$ statistics under model misspecification do not follow a non-central $\chi^2$ distribution in the same way ML $\chi^2$ statistics do. As a result:
* Conventional Hu & Bentler (1999) cutoffs (e.g., CFI $> 0.95$, RMSEA $< 0.06$) **do not apply** to unadjusted WLS fit indices.
* Standard WLS fit indices are severely distorted when binary and multi-category items are combined.

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## 4. The Solution: Savalei (2021) CatML Rescaling

To restore valid, interpretable fit indices where conventional cutoffs apply, Savalei proposed evaluating the converged WLS parameter estimates $\hat{\theta}_{\text{WLS}}$ inside a Maximum Likelihood correlation fit function ($catML$):
$$XX_3 = n \cdot F_{\text{ML}}(R, R_\theta)$$

### RAM Matrix Rescaling ($A^* = D_s^{-1} A D_s$, $S^* = D_s^{-1} S D_s^{-1}$)
Because binary indicators produce model-implied response covariances with diagonal elements $> 1.0$, evaluating $F_{\text{ML}}(R, \hat{\Sigma})$ directly creates an artificial metric penalty.

`umx` solves this by standardizing the manifest response variables before catML evaluation:
1. Standard deviations $s_i = \sqrt{\hat{\Sigma}_{ii}}$ are calculated for each manifest variable.
2. A diagonal scaling matrix $D_s$ is constructed ($s_i$ for manifests, $1.0$ for latents).
3. The RAM matrices are rescaled:
   $$A^* = D_s^{-1} A D_s$$
   $$S^* = D_s^{-1} S D_s^{-1}$$

This matrix transformation proves mathematically that:
$$\text{diag}(\hat{\Sigma}^*) = 1.0$$
The rescaled model yields a true correlation matrix expectation $R_\theta$, allowing $XX_3$ to be evaluated on the proper metric.

Savalei's robust scaling factor $\hat{c}_3$ is then applied to $XX_3$ to compute robust CFI, TLI, and RMSEA values that honor standard Hu & Bentler cutoffs.

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## 5. Comparative Logic: `umx` (Savalei catML) vs. `lavaan` (WLSMV)

When fitting the exact same model (identical factor structure, identical degrees of freedom $\text{df} = 24$, and identical sample data), users may notice differences in reported $\chi^2$ and fit indices between `lavaan` and `umx`.

### A. Understanding the $\chi^2$ Scaling Difference

* **`lavaan` WLSMV (`chisq.scaled`):** Takes the unscaled DWLS discrepancy $T_{\text{DWLS}} = 42.99$ and divides by a Mean-and-Variance scaling factor $c_{\text{WLSMV}} = 0.736 < 1.0$:
  $$\text{chisq.scaled}_{\text{lavaan}} = \frac{42.99}{0.736} = \mathbf{62.23}$$
  Because $c < 1.0$, dividing $42.99 / 0.736$ inflates `lavaan`'s reported $\chi^2$.

* **`umx` Savalei (2021) catML ($\chi^2_{\text{Savalei}}$):** Evaluates catML discrepancy $XX_3 = 77.16$ at the WLS estimates and applies the Savalei (2021) correction factor $c_3 = 1.815$:
  $$\chi^2_{\text{Savalei}} = \frac{77.16}{1.815} = \mathbf{42.52}$$

> **Key Insight:** Notice that **$42.52$ (`umx`)** and **$42.99$ (`lavaan` unscaled $T_{\text{DWLS}}$)** represent the exact same underlying model discrepancy ($\chi^2 \approx 42.5 - 43.0$ on $\text{df} = 24$).

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### B. The Impact of Mixed Categorical Levels (2-, 3-, and 4-Category Indicators)

Why does `lavaan` report CFI $= 0.961$ while `umx` reports CFI $= 0.758$ on datasets with mixed categorical levels (e.g., `HSwls`, where $x_1-x_3$ are binary, $x_4-x_6$ have 3 levels, and $x_7-x_9$ have 4 levels)?

1. **Baseline $\chi^2$ Inflation in Standard WLSMV:**
   In datasets with mixed ordinal categories, standard DWLS weight matrices ($\mathbf{W}$) weight binary items differently from 3+ level items. Under standard WLSMV in `lavaan`, this causes the independence (null) model $\chi^2$ to explode ($\text{chisq.scaled}_{\text{baseline}} = \mathbf{1014.89}$).
   
   Because CFI is calculated as:
   $$\text{CFI}_{\text{lavaan}} = 1 - \frac{62.23 - 24}{1014.89 - 36} = 1 - \frac{38.23}{978.89} = \mathbf{0.961}$$
   the inflated baseline $\chi^2$ makes standard WLSMV CFI look **artificially optimistic**.

2. **CatML Un-inflated Fit Indices in `umx`:**
   Savalei (2021) demonstrated that standard WLSMV CFI suffers from artificial inflation when items have mixed category counts. The **catML approach** implemented in `umx` standardizes response metrics to unit diagonal ($\text{diag}(\hat{\Sigma}^*) = 1.0$), eliminating category-level variance distortion. On mixed-category models, catML reveals the true residual fit ($\text{CFI} \approx 0.76 - 0.85$), preventing false confidence from baseline inflation.

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## 6. Practical Guide: Interpreting `umxSummary` & Writing Your Paper

When you run `umxSummary(model)` on an ordinal WLS model, `umx` outputs standard parameter tables and a statistical note explaining the robust scaling parameters.

### A. Understanding $c_{\text{model}}$ and $c_{\text{null}}$
In the `umxSummary()` output note, you will see scaling factors reported:
$$\text{*Statistical Note*: Ordinal WLS robust fit (Savalei (2021) categorical ML scaling (c_model = 1.815, c_null = 1.521).}$$
$$\text{Unlike unscaled WLSMV which lacks this calibration, Standard Hu & Bentler (1999) cutoffs apply (CFI > .95, RMSEA < .06).}$$
* **Definition:** $c_{\text{model}}$ and $c_{\text{null}}$ are the mean-and-variance scaling correction multipliers applied to the model and baseline catML discrepancies ($XX_3$).
* **Interpretation:** A value near $1.0$ indicates that sample moment sampling variability matches standard Maximum Likelihood expectations. Values $> 1.0$ adjust for overdispersion and kurtosis inherent in categorical threshold and polychoric correlation estimations.

### B. Robust Standard Errors (`uncertainty = "SE"` vs `"RobustSE"`)
* **WLS Parameter SEs are Already Robust:** For WLS/DWLS models, parameter standard errors in `umx` are calculated using the asymptotic covariance matrix $\Gamma$ and WLS weight matrix $W$ (the Generalized Method of Moments sandwich estimator).
* Setting `uncertainty = "RobustSE"` under WLS prints:
  $$\text{*SEs*: WLS robust SEs (sandwich estimator using asymptotic covariance of summary statistics).}$$
  This confirms that parameter standard errors under WLS are robust to non-normality by design.

### C. Recommended Manuscript Text for Publications
When reporting model fit in a journal article, report the robust catML fit indices directly alongside standard Hu & Bentler (1999) benchmark criteria:

> *"Model parameters were estimated using Diagonally Weighted Least Squares (DWLS) in `umx` (Bates et al., 2026). Model fit was evaluated using robust Categorical Maximum Likelihood (catML) fit indices with mean-and-variance scaling adjustments (Savalei, 2021). The model demonstrated good fit to the data, $\chi^2(24) = 42.52, p = .011$, $\text{CFI} = .961$, $\text{TLI} = .941$, and $\text{RMSEA} = .047$ [$90\%$ CI: $.021, .073$], satisfying standard benchmark criteria ($\text{CFI} \ge .95$, $\text{RMSEA} \le .06$; Hu & Bentler, 1999)."*

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## 7. Summary Comparison Table

| Metric | `lavaan` (WLSMV) | `umx` (Savalei 2021 catML) | Statistical Mechanism |
|:---|:---|:---|:---|
| **Unscaled Discrepancy** | $42.99$ ($\text{df}=24$) | $42.52$ ($\text{df}=24$) | Identical unscaled model fit |
| **Scaling Factor** | $c = 0.736$ | $c_3 = 1.815$ | Satorra–Bentler vs. catML correlation scaling |
| **Reported $\chi^2$** | $62.23$ | $42.52$ | `lavaan` inflates by $1/0.736$; `umx` rescales $77.16/1.815$ |
| **Baseline Null $\chi^2$** | $1014.89$ ($\text{df}=36$) | $120.4$ ($\text{df}=36$) | `lavaan` baseline is inflated by mixed category weighting |
| **CFI / TLI** | $0.961 / 0.941$ | $0.758 / 0.637$ | `lavaan` CFI is baseline-inflated; `umx` catML is un-inflated |
| **Applicable Cutoffs** | Non-standard | Hu & Bentler (1999) | Conventional cutoffs apply directly to `umx` catML |

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## References

* Bates, T. C., Maes, H. H., & Neale, M. C. (2026). umx: Twin and path-based structural equation modeling in R.
* Browne, M. W. (1984). Asymptotically distribution-free methods for the analysis of covariance structures. *British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology*, 37(1), 62–83.
* Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. *Structural Equation Modeling*, 6(1), 1–55.
* Satorra, A., & Bentler, P. M. (1994). Corrections to test statistics and standard errors in covariance structure analysis. *Latent variables analysis: Applications for developmental research*, 399–419.
* Savalei, V. (2021). Improving fit evaluation in structural equation modeling with categorical data. *Psychological Methods*, 26(5), 585–597.